GENERATING AND USING ELECTRICITY IN THE UNITED STATES

ARSC 110 CAPSTONE SEMINAR PROPOSAL
Interdisciplinary Minor in Environmental Ethics

Marquette University is a Jesuit, Catholic research institution dedicated to "the search for truth, the discovery and sharing of knowledge, the fostering of personal and professional excellence, the promotion of a life of faith, and the development of leadership expressed in service to others." ⁽¹⁾  This mission is made manifest when students dedicate their lives to the service of others and actively enter into the struggle for a more just society.
       To demonstrate this mission, a proposal was made by Marquette faculty representing several disciplines to offer students "the intellectual resources for understanding and reflecting on the ethical implications of their own and their communities' thinking and practice regarding environmental matters." ⁽²⁾  The faculty noted that the pursuit of knowledge and struggle for justice have "a wider compass" than traditionally thought.  Contributing to the realization of this wider view of justice are contemporary scientific findings about the physical connections between our species and other species, the air, the land and the water that constitute our shared planet, the adverse environmental effects on populations of varied economic means, and the ramifications of ecological disruption in the future contributed to this realization.  The proposal to establish an Interdisciplinary Minor in Environmental Ethics was approved and launched in Fall 2001 to achieve the new program's goals.
       Two years later, we, a group of ten students pursuing the minor, have synthesized our learning as the capstone endeavor of our cumulative studies.  Treating the issue of electricity generation and use in the United States from an ethical perspective, our proposal is informed and influenced by the multiple fields of economics, physics, ecology, philosophy and theology.  The reason for employing these academic disciplines is to encompass the most holistic and comprehensive perspective from which to identify principles that guide human behavior at all levels of society during our ecologically endangered age.  We believe that the knowledge we have gained in this interdisciplinary endeavor is a fundamental component to the process of achieving a proper relationship with God and the totality of God's creation.  We also believe that this tripartite relationship is requisite to bringing about true justice for humankind and all the diverse beings that comprise God's Earth.

The Trajectory of the Proposal
We look to a future in which electricity is produced in ways that environmental degradation is minimized, non-renewable sources are not depleted at the expense of future generations, renewable sources are the mainstay of our economy, electricity is used efficiently and appropriately in all sectors of our economy, the basic electricity needs of all people are met, and the global climate is stable.  In our vision for the future, a balance exists between the desires of the consumer and the needs of the global biotic community, and ecological diversity provides the natural defense against devastating catastrophes.
       To facilitate the realization of this future, we encourage improvement in the efficiency in which electricity is produced and used.  The most efficient methods possible should be employed when generating electricity from traditional fuels.  Consumers of electricity should use efficient appliances and lights, and they should embrace simple methods of saving electricity.  Fuel sources for the production of electricity should shift from primarily non-renewable to renewable sources, with renewables subsidized at levels at least comparable to non-renewables.  This shift should be accompanied by an orientation toward distributed generation and comprehensive co-generation of heat and electricity.  Greenhouse gas emissions should be decreased dramatically to ensure that future generations inherit a stable climate in which adequate food production and standard of living are possible for all.  The present array of traditional means of producing electricity cannot be sustained far into the future, and modifications need to be made so more varied and renewable types of generating electricity become available.  Within the varied contexts of the diverse regions of the United States, a portfolio of generation methods should be implemented in order to moderate the negative consequences of each form of production.
       We offer our proposal to all who can bring about changes in their homes, in their businesses, in manufacturing products, in generating electricity, in government at all levels, in educational institutions, and in places of worship.  Every member of society engages in behavior that affects electricity use and its effects on the environment to a greater or lesser extent, so we wish to address individuals and groups in their respective decision-making capacities about the ethical implications of the production and consumption of electricity.  We are especially cognizant of the efforts currently underway in the United States Congress to develop an energy plan, and we hope our elected representatives will consider our vision for the future and how to arrive there.

Overview
Our recommendations for generating and using electricity in the United States constitute the first part of our proposal.  These recommendations resulted from deliberative consideration of recommendations drafted by teams of students who researched and presented information on the various methods of generating and using electricity.
       In the second part of the proposal, the theological and philosophical foundations for our recommendations are explained.  This report was drafted by Laura Blazer and Joseph Rowley after a seminar session focusing on documents issued by the Society of Jesus, the Roman Catholic Church, and Wisconsin's celebrated environmental ethicist, Aldo Leopold.  Human collaboration with God by collaborating with God's creation, the unity of creation with humans acting as morally virtuous agents, solidarity with the poor, and the principle of subsidiarity are the key themes we've retrieved and used as the basis for the principles set out in our proposal for generating and using electricity in the United States.  The draft was considered in a subsequent session and revised accordingly.
       The third part of the proposal consists of reports by students on the generation of electricity with non-renewable sources, generation with renewable sources, and more efficient and appropriate methods of using electricity in the major sectors of our socio-economy.  These reports were prepared after extensive research, presentations to our peers during seminar sessions, and writing.  Authoring the efficient and appropriate use of electricity in the residential sector are Laura Blazer and Lindsay Leiterman, the commercial sector by Craig Pierce and Andy Zychowicz, the industrial sector by Megan Cain and Karin Schindel, the utilities sector by Anna Chapin and Joe Pedersen, the government sector by Chris Petrauskis and Joe Rowley, and the education sector by Megan Cain and Chris Petrauskis.  Reports on renewable sources for generating electricity by biomass are Craig Pierce and Karin Schindel, geothermal by Joe Pedersen, hydropower by Laura Blazer and Anna Chapin, hydrogen fuel cells by Andy Zychowicz, solar by Anna Chapin and Chris Petrauskis, and wind by Megan Cain and Lindsay Leiterman.  Non-renewable sources for generating electricity are covered by Chris Petrauskis and Craig Pierce on coal,  Megan Cain and Andy Zychowicz on natural gas, Lindsay Leiterman and Karin Schindel on nuclear, and Joe Pedersen and Joe Rowley on oil.  
       Additional tasks accomplished by the students include the formatting of all reports by Craig Pierce.  Anna Chapin compiled the many sources used in the reports into one bibliography.  Joseph Rowley shouldered the task of leading the discussions of the recommendations, concluding to a consensus, and revising them accordingly.  
       We are grateful to Marquette faculty and visiting lecturers who enhanced our understanding of the issues.  Drs. John Karkheck, Chair and Professor of Physics, James Maki, Associate Professor of Biology, Douglas Booth, Professor of Economics, and Owen Goldin, Associate Professor of Philosophy discussed their disciplines' contribution to the various dimensions of electricity generation and use.  Michael Vickerman of RENEW Wisconsin, John Hippensteel of Lake Michigan Solar and Wind, Wayne Stroessner of Interfaith Climate Change, Thomas Fehring of WE Power, Rich Bogovich of Wisconsin's Environmental Decade, Sr. Shell Balek OSF of Franciscans International generously took the time to come to seminar sessions to share their perspectives on our seminar topic and to provide a plethora of materials from which we learned and with which we grappled to achieve an overall understanding of the issues.  We especially wish to thank Dr. Jame Schaefer, Assistant Professor of Theology and Director of the Interdisciplinary Minor in Environmental Ethics, for organizing and facilitating this seminar's ambitious project.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations on Using Electricity

In our study of electricity generation and use from an ethical perspective, energy efficiency and appropriate use proved to be themes essential to the overall ideals of this proposal.  We recognize the finite and environmentally damaging nature of fossil fuel consumption along with the limitations of current non-renewable technologies, and we acknowledge the ongoing problems with the nuclear generation of electricity.  This realization calls logically, ethically and economically for our society to use the energy produced from these precious resources in the most prudent manner possible. We urge not only energy efficiency, the use of less electricity in a given application, but also the use of electricity in only the most appropriate and essential applications.

Electricity Use in the Residential Sector
1) As individuals, we ought to utilize sunlight whenever possible as the main source of light in our homes and the most energy efficient alternative light sources when natural light is not available. Some strategies that can be employed include replacing incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent lights, installing motion-detector equipped bulbs for outdoor lighting, lighting to accomplish specific tasks in specific areas, using two- or three-way lamps, and equipping lamps with translucent lampshades.

2) Homeowners ought to install new energy efficient windows, and both homeowners and renters ought to take other measures to utilize windows as a source of natural light, as well as allow windows to work with, not against, interior climate control.  Among the ways to minimize the loss of heating and cooling are weather-stripping, storm windows, rope caulking along leaky frames, enabling passive solar to heat rooms in the summer, closing curtains after sundown to keep the heat in, and double-pane windows.

3) As individuals, we ought to take active steps to reduce the energy requirements of all major appliances. Some practical measures to take include investing in energy saving appliances, turning off appliances when not being used, using appropriate amounts and temperature of water when washing clothes, cleaning lint filters after drying clothes, not over-drying them, and using the cool-down cycle to allow clothes to finish drying, using gas ovens and stoves which are more energy efficient than electric, avoid using a large oven to prepare small meals, allowing food to cool prior to placing it in the refrigerator, covering foods before refrigerating them, and sealing refrigerator doors.

4) As individuals, we ought to utilize inexpensive and easy methods of reducing our electricity demand for space cooling in homes and rented housing units.  A variety of simple practices are available to improve the efficiency of air conditioning systems and decrease our total electricity demand for cooling.  For example, we should tune up old air conditioning systems, check and clean filters every month, avoid cooling rooms rarely used, open windows at night to let cool breezes in instead of keeping the air conditioner running, set the air conditioner at the highest possible degree that is comfortable, keep windows closed during the day to reduce heat gain and to retain cool air in the house, reflect heat away during the day by maintaining roof and exterior walls a light color, insulate and weatherize homes to reduce leaks, use exterior awnings, overhangs, shutters, interior shades and drapes, minimize the use of lights, dishwashers, dryers, ovens and other heat-generating appliances during the day. This can be done by restricting their use to cooler parts of the day, such as the morning and early evening, as well as by using natural daylight to light rooms, and cooking with a grill or microwave oven, which generate less heat.

5) Individuals ought to utilize inexpensive and easy methods of reducing our electricity demand for space heating in homes and rented housing units.  For example, seal cracks, gaps and other holes in your home's walls and attic to reduce heat loss, avoid using fireplaces when the heat is turned on because they "suck out" the warm air replacing it with cool air from outside, close the chimney flue when the fireplace is not in use, place large, insulated windows on the south-facing walls of your home to absorb the most solar heat during the day, invest in a programmable thermostat, make sure the setting on your water heater thermostat is no more than 120 degrees (the temperature needed to kill bacteria), place insulator jackets on water heaters to reduce heat loss in the system, and consider installing a low-flow shower head and taking shorter showers.

6) Individuals ought to employ smart, easy-to-do landscaping methods around their homes to help decrease the total electricity demand for heating and cooling.  Trees and shrubs can save up to 25 percent of a typical household's energy consumption for heating and cooling every year.  Carefully positioned deciduous trees, shrubs, vines and bushes planted on the south and west sides of a home can protect from summer sun, but still allow winter sun to enter.  When planted near the home, they can also help shade and absorb sunlight.  Evergreens planted on the north and west sides of a home can deflect winter winds, and fences and rows of trees and shrubs can serve as wind channels, directing cold winds away from the home.  Planting trees and shrubs around the home create shady areas, and evaporative cooling as a result of photosynthesis helps reduce overall temperatures.

Electricity Use in the Commercial Sector
1) Individual businesses should advance and implement distributed and co-generation technologies.  The thermodynamic losses from centralized remote power plants represent a large source of inefficiency. The employment of these two technologies will increase thermal efficiencies as much as 50 percent.

2) Trade organizations should increase awareness and education regarding energy efficient products. Decision makers in the commercial sector receive information about new products, technologies and innovations in their respective fields through trade organizations and industry specific publications. Increasing education regarding energy efficiency must involve the cooperation of these mechanisms for information distribution.

3) Local, state and federal governments should implement stronger commercial building energy codes.  A great deal of electricity is used to light and cool buildings. With carefully crafted building codes that are sensitive to this issue, a great deal of electricity could be saved. For example, the careful placement of windows and trees can increase the availability of natural light.  Additionally, a well-insulated envelope or structural frame of a building can prevent hot air intrusion during the summer and contain warm air during colder months.

4) Governments at all levels should facilitate technical assistance for the implementation of efficiency programs that includes cooperation with non-profit energy consultants. Non-profit energy organizations are staffed by individuals committed to energy efficiency who have the technical knowledge to implement energy efficiency programs. However, there is a gap between the willingness of energy consultants to assist business owners and decision makers and their willingness to accept this assistance. State and national governments should play a role in monitoring these groups to improve energy efficiency.

5) The federal government should establish a market based national efficiency standard.  In order to truly elicit cost-efficient gains in the economy, policies should be enacted to encourage market solutions to efficiency.  Perhaps the best way to accomplish this is by implementing a national efficiency standard that can be regulated and monitored by individual states.  Due to varying climates and electricity-providing configurations within different states and regions, state regulation will most effectively encourage the commercial sector to improve or perpetuate its levels of efficiency in using electricity.

Electricity Use in the Industrial Sector
1) Industries should promote the overall efficient and appropriate use of electricity. The industrial sector uses 29 percent of the total electricity produced in the United States. This sector of our economy should utilize systems that create an overall higher efficiency and that use electricity in ways that are appropriate.

2) Industries ought to use co-generation systems to create more efficient processes, consequently, conserving both money and electricity.  The use of co-generation systems delivers electricity and heat with up to 91 percent efficiency.  Co-generation enables the industrial sector to use electricity and waste heat efficiently for their appropriate purposes.

3) Industries should appeal to the appropriate level of governments for subsidies or tax breaks for the production of energy efficient appliances. With incentives in place, a market will be created for the energy efficient appliances that the industrial sector creates. In turn, lower prices for more efficient appliances will result in electricity savings and a more efficient economy.

4) Industries ought to eliminate all inappropriate uses of compressed air and to maximize compressed air efficiency in order to minimize the air leaks.  Since the U.S. industrial sector spends roughly $1.5 billion on compressed air systems, industries need to be efficient when using compressed air.  They can minimize their usage with compressed air when it is the best option. They can also be more efficient by minimizing air leaks with regular monitoring.

5) Industries should make their steam systems more efficient.  Industries could save an average of 20 percent on steam savings if they optimize their process.  The ways to improve their steam systems are to improve their steam generation process, steam distribution system, and steam recovery process.

6) Industries should make their combustion processes more efficient. Boilers, furnaces and other process heaters altogether account for about two-thirds of the total energy used by U.S. manufacturing industries. Some of the practices that should be applied to optimize these processes are checking the burner-to-air fuel ratios and preheating the combustion gas before it reaches the burners.

7) Industries should make motors more efficient.  Since motor-driven equipment is responsible for 64 percent of all industrial electricity usage, this process should be made more efficient. This can be accomplished by eliminating voltage unbalances, optimizing pipe sizes, and using cogged and synchronized belts where applicable.

Electricity Use by Utilities
1) Federal and state governments ought to promote a competitive energy market that benefits both the consumer and the environment. The current, non-competitive market protects inefficient, non-competitive utilities. By encouraging competition, these utilities are forced to run efficiently or run out of business.

2) Federal and state governments ought to promote the use of alternative energy.  In the course of becoming more efficient, utilities need to switch some energy sources from non-renewable fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. Government bodies can help promote this change through subsidies to utility companies and public education efforts that promote both understanding and willingness to use renewables as appropriately as possible.

3) The federal government ought to establish a national fossil fuel efficiency standard.  A national standard for energy usage per megawatt hour should be established along with a plan for a progressive decline in fossil fuel energy use to generate electricity over a set period of time.  The standard would promote energy efficiency while decreasing the nation's reliance on fossil fuels in the future.

4) State and local governments ought to explore the benefits of co-generation technologies.  Smaller and more local utility plants can to be used to provide co-generated heat to the consumer.  The aim would be to eliminate heat 'waste' or the need to treat it.

5) Federal and state governments, working in tandem with utilities, ought to seek the root causes of utility inefficiency. Instead of treating the symptoms of this problem or trying to control only consumer demand, decision-makers need to investigate solutions to all sources of inefficiency.  Utilities should work with the public to educate consumers and to develop an understanding of electricity and its appropriate use in order to better serve their electricity needs. Through education efforts, the public can begin to make more informed decisions regarding energy production and usage.

Electricity Use in the Government Sector
1) Federal and state governments ought to make available to the construction industry educational programs that highlight the economic feasibility of green building, and local governments should make available to consumers educational programs and materials that underscore the benefits of green building designs.  Because many architects, engineers, agency stakeholders, contractors and customers are not knowledgeable about green building practices and technology, the design and building of green structures lag.  Construction of green buildings is in the best interest of both electricity cost savings and the efficient and appropriate use of electricity.

2) Recognizing the value of education, federal and state governments ought to offer tax subsidies to manufacturers for advertising highly efficient appliances, and state and local governments ought to make available educational materials to residential consumers about the economic benefits of highly efficient appliances. Though green projects might have higher initial costs, they can actually be more cost-effective over the life of the facility and have other benefits.

3) To further encourage green building practices, federal and state governments ought to partially compensate construction companies through subsidies for the higher costs of electricity conserving building, while federal and state governments ought to make available tax-breaks or subsidies for those who purchase energy efficient homes. In the competitive construction market, with initial costs bearing heavily upon decision-making processes, the long-term societal benefits of green design that extend well beyond a specific site will not be realized unless subsidies compensate for higher initial costs.

4) State and local governments ought to encourage the private purchase of green buildings with built-in efficiencies through subsidies.  Some of the benefits of green buildings are difficult to quantify, including decreased adverse effects on the environment and improved employee productivity and well-being.  A method of accounting for these savings should be standardized to determine adequate subsidies to offer to purchasers.

5) Government officials at every level ought to recognize that the benefits of the efficient use of electricity extend far beyond the realm of economics.  Keeping in mind the responsibility of the government to ensure the best standard of living possible for its citizens, non-economic benefits like employee well-being and a clean environment cannot be ignored.  Even if there was an absence of significant economic incentive for green building construction practices, better living and working conditions are of great value to general well-being, making them suitable ethical goals.  It is to be hoped that in the future subsidies will become unnecessary for the encouragement of electricity efficiency.

Electricity Use in the Education Sector
1) Realizing that schools are microcosms of society, educational institutions ought to incorporate within their missions a strong focus upon sustainability and environmental awareness, formulating educational and action-based goals like those established in the Talloires Declaration.  The university has a responsibility to be a positive example to students in both mission and identity, to ensure that graduates move forward in life with an understanding of how to live appropriately within the current ecological situation.  Citizens of the United States ought to know about environmental issues pertaining to electricity generation and its more efficient and appropriate use.

2) Colleges and universities ought to ensure that students are instilled with a keen awareness of important environmental issues like the efficient and appropriate use of electricity through sustainability courses that are integral to core curriculums, greater varieties of environmental classes and environmental programs, and awareness events.  The ecological and environmental benefits of efficient electricity usage need to be made clear to skeptical and uninformed students.

3) Realizing the importance of discourse between people of varying expertise, colleges and universities ought to encourage interdisciplinary research into environmental issues like electricity and energy efficiency. As part of this research, students should be engaged in research on the environment effects of each school's daily operations in order to recommend improvements, including techniques to increase more efficient and appropriate uses of electricity.

4) To show a commitment to the benefits of increased electricity efficiency, colleges and universities ought to incorporate "green" electricity measures into all newly and previously constructed buildings.  Key methods of increasing electricity efficiency include the utilization of combined heat-and-power plants to efficiently provide heat and electricity to campuses, the installation of energy efficient appliances and lighting systems, and the adoption of more responsive heating and air-conditioning controls.

Recommendations on Renewable Sources for Generating Electricity

Solar, wind, water, biomass, hydrogen, geothermal and other renewable sources for generating electricity are being researched and applied in the United States, but they still only produce a very small fraction of the nations' electricity.  Electricity generated by renewables is more expensive in comparison with electricity generated by non-renewable sources because the research is incomplete and development of most renewables has not proceeded beyond a small scale.  To increase the use of renewable sources, federal subsidies are needed at a level equal to or greater than the current generous subsidization of non-renewable resources.  With comparable subsidies, renewable sources will be more marketable.
       Reliance on renewable sources to generate electricity should provide a more sustainable environment for future generations. The current reliance on non-renewable sources depletes their availability to future generations and causes adverse environmental effects that threaten the health and well-being of future generations of humans, other species, ecosystems, and the biosphere.  Using renewable sources will enable our moving away from the generation of electricity by combustion of fossil fuels and by nuclear power with its radioactive waste disposal and safety concerns.
       Though renewable sources are bountiful and will be available for future generations, they should be utilized in ways that minimize damage to humans, other species, the air, land and water.  Renewable sources should also be used efficiently.  Those who profess faith in God should continue to recognize that humans are part of the community of God's creation and responsible to God for how we act toward one another and God's other creatures.
       Citizen involvement is imperative to move toward increasing reliance on renewable sources for generating electricity.  We need to work with our representatives at local, state and federal levels to fuel and advance this movement toward our electricity future.  We can also promote renewable energy sources by pressuring utilities to increase research.  We can also opt to pay an extra surcharge on our electric bills every month which will go towards researching renewables.

Biomass
1) With the support of governments, electrical utilities ought to invest in and embrace non-combustive uses of biomass.  A number of new technologies can convert biomass into electricity in non-combustive ways. These non-combustive techniques are much cleaner than the traditional combustion of biomass and provide the most ethical method of generating electricity from biomass.

2) Electrical industries ought to supplement the combustion of non-renewable fuels with biomass.  By increasing the use of biomass in current generating facilities, the amount of harmful emissions and pollutants that occur through standard combustion can be decreased.

3) Government, electric utilities, industries, businesses and individuals ought to encourage the recycling of materials for biomass energy production.  Enormous amounts of available biomass exist in the United States.  In the past few years, recycling programs have been implemented across the country for glass, cans, paper, etc.  With the exception of paper, biomass remains in the trash.  Acknowledging the energy content of biomass, our nation ought to encourage biomass recycling for industries that use and dispose of biomass in large quantities.  By recycling biomass, the country will have an increased biomass supply that can displace non-renewable and more harmful sources of energy.

4) State and municipal governments ought to exhibit caution when selecting biomass sources for electricity. Biomass supplies come from a vast number of sources. Often times it is difficult to determine what elements may be contained within these biomass supplies. Since the majority of biomass energy is obtained through combustion, many harmful emissions result from the combustion of pesticides, industrial waste and untreated sewage.

5) Electrical utilities ought to use the cleanest, most efficient available technologies when co-firing.  Most electricity production from biomass takes place through co-firing.  As with any combustion process, biomass combustion ought to utilize processes that most effectively reduce the amount of pollution and emissions, such as NO_x, SO_x, CO₂, and particulates.

6) State and local governments ought to provide a means of balanced exchange between the use of livestock waste by farmers and for biomass electricity production.  Livestock produce large amounts of waste, and this waste is valuable for both farmers and for biomass electricity production.  Farmers use livestock manure to fertilizer their fields, and energy companies can use livestock manure for electricity production.  In order to satisfy both parties, federal, state, and local governments ought to establish a fair and regulated means of exchange between farmers and energy companies.

7) Federal, state, and local governments ought to offer the tax cuts or subsidies necessary to facilitate the exchange between the source and the use of biomass.  The collection, exchange, and transportation of biomass can be difficult.  To provide incentive for the holders of biomass, the government should make this biomass exchange economically and logistically feasible.

8) Each state's Department of Natural Resources ought to consider the ecological impacts of biomass removal.  Severe consequences can result from the removal of too much biomass from its natural environment.  Current impacts include deforestation and decreased soil quality.

Geothermal
1) The United States should consider geothermal energy as a source of heat that could be used in place of electric heating.  Where geothermal energy is available, it can provide efficient space heating in lieu of electric heat. Energy savings can be achieved by tapping into the renewable source of heat that our earth yields.

2) Federal and state governments should work together to secure funding for technological improvements in geothermal energy exploration and use.  At the present time, geothermal energy can only be utilized as a source of renewable energy in certain areas of the world.  Through increased funding for exploration of new and existing technologies, geothermal energy could be identified and used in some parts of the United States as a clean and efficient energy source.

3) Citizens should strive individually and collectively to maintain an environment that will secure future generations the same opportunities that are experienced today.  As a community, citizens should work with their representatives at the state and municipal level to communicate problems our nation faces in meeting electricity needs and alternatives that are currently available.

Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
1) As consumers and as a nation, we should embrace technologies like fuel cells that allow us to dissolve our dependence upon internal combustion engines and fossil fuel combustion for energy needs to reduce climate change and general environmental degradation.  Fuel cell technologies provide a completely emission-less form of power that could replace current technologies threatening humans, other species, and the abiotic environment.

2) Utilities ought to explore energy storage capacity of hydrogen during off peak demand hours and for fossil fuel sources, renewables, and nuclear whose electricity production is not dependent upon electricity demand.  Electricity is being generated by sources, especially renewables, even when there is not a great demand.  If electricity is produced by these sources when there is no demand, the electricity is wasted.  Instead, it could be stored in hydrogen fuel cells at low cost.

3) Government subsidies ought to be issued for exploration and implementation of hydrogen production technologies.  Among these technologies are the employment of fossil fuel use in non-combustion carbon sequestering production to diminish costs which would open a new market, diversify hydrogen production, reduce power plant emissions, and secure a domestic fuel source.

4) Our nation ought to move away from a centralized power grid vulnerable to outside attack and subject to loss of efficiency.  Destruction of key locations within the current power grid would result in widespread loss of power.  Also, the greater the distance electricity travels, the more energy loss occurs.

5) Government subsidies ought to be issued for exploration and implementation of technologies such as biochemical pathways involving non-precious metal catalysts to reduce fixed costs associated with fuel cell technologies.  Cost seems to be one of the largest barriers facing fuel cell technologies, and the platinum used as a catalyst in several of the fuel cell types is the most significant contributor to that cost.  However, nature has devised catalysts that perform the same reactions but use non-precious metal catalysts.

6) The government ought to step in to combat the positive externalities and free rider problem on research, development and large-scale production of fuel cell and hydrogen production technologies.  The social, political, environmental and economic benefits of developing and implementing these technologies will be experienced by everyone, but the high costs will be born by a few.  Without subsides, there is no economic incentive for the individual.

Hydropower
1) The United States ought to pursue the development of dams that are not currently generating electricity in our country and actualize their potential for producing electricity with minimal environmental impact.  Only 2 percent of dams in the United States are currently used for hydroelectric generation.  There is great potential for development of sites into generating plants to supply more of the national demand for electricity, without the construction of a single new dam.

2) As individuals, we ought to promote the benefits of hydropower more actively, effectively and efficiently.  Hydropower is a clean, renewable and efficient energy source that prevents the emission of 77 million metric tons of carbon each year from fossil fuel-burning plants.  Hydropower contributes significantly to the U.S. electrical energy supply, providing 8 to 10 percent of U.S. electricity every year while avoiding air emissions and having minimal impact on global climate change.  As such, hydropower should be promoted and developed more actively than its non-renewable counterparts.

3) As individuals, we ought to promote the development of hydropower as a renewable, low-emissions resource so that future generations will have a constant source of energy without reliance on non-renewable sources such as fossil fuels and nuclear power. Individuals today ought to be cognizant of the energy needs of future generations, and provide them with at least the same stock of energy resources we have today. As an inexhaustible, renewable source of energy, hydropower is a viable substitute for non-renewable fossil fuels and nuclear plants. Hydropower should be developed now to eventually replace the non-renewable resources that will become extinct in the future. We should promote hydropower development now under the assumption that future generations will value cleaner air and a stable climate as much as we do today.

4) As individuals and citizens of the United States, we ought to encourage hydropower developers and other entities involved in the licensing process to give equal consideration to energy and environmental needs when assessing the potential and impact of a hydropower facility.  We ought to realize that humans are one species among many in the larger community of creation and that the air, land and water are also parts of this community.  As such, individuals have a responsibility to respect the interests of all parts of the Earth community and make sure that they are represented at the decision-making table.

5) As individuals, we ought to demand the development of hydropower in ways that lead to minimal disruption of the natural world and human communities, while still meeting energy needs.  We ought to pursue the development of mitigation strategies to reduce the impact of turbines on fish populations, to restore the nutrient concentrations downstream from dams, and to maintain the health of the surrounding ecosystems.  Furthermore, we ought to provide adequate compensation to those persons who are forced out of their homes from the flooding that results in dam construction.  Strict safety protocols should also be enforced to reduce the likelihood of dam failure.

6) The federal government ought to recognize the long-term benefits of hydropower, rather than focus on the short-term costs, and provide incentives to developers and education for the public on hydropower benefits.  Many developers are deterred from investing in hydropower projects because of the extremely high costs and capital stock necessary upfront.  Most people do not look past this initial high cost to see the long-term economic benefits from hydropower associated with low operation and maintenance costs, as well as low price per kilowatt-hour of energy produced.  The federal government should provide incentives to hydropower developers pursuing dam conversion projects to help lessen the initial burden and minimize risks.  The federal government should also educate the general public about the low energy costs that hydropower delivers to consumers in the long run.

7) The federal government ought to improve the efficiency of the licensing process of hydropower projects in mutual collaboration with state and local authorities and with the general public in the spirit of unity and solidarity. A more efficient and timely re-licensing process is needed without sacrificing environmental protection. The federal government ought to pass legislation that would demand a more integrated process involving the mutual and timely cooperation of all concerned parties at the community, state and federal levels.

8) The federal government ought to pursue the strategy of reducing U.S. emissions while increasing generating capacity by developing non-carbon alternatives such as hydroelectric, tidal and wave energy sources.  Hydroelectric power plants are the most efficient power plants in the United States.  As noted in the hydropower report, hydro-turbines convert 90 percent of available energy into electricity.  This makes hydroelectric energy a viable substitute for non-renewable sources.  Also, huge potential exists in tidal and wave power as clean and renewable energy sources for our future.  As such, the federal government ought to allocate a substantial amount of money to support the research, development and construction of power plants utilizing these alternative energy sources.

Solar
1) Decision-makers in all sectors of the economy should consider and take advantage of the sun's energy to reduce dependence on non-renewable sources of energy. Current dependence upon non-renewable sources is imprudent and impractical, since the exhaustion of many fossil fuels is immanent whereas the potential for renewable sources is limitless. Individuals within all sectors from homes to the government buildings should strive to utilize solar technologies that actively produce electricity as an alternate source to fossil fuels and that passively reduce overall reliance upon electricity through the implementation of "green" designs that capture the sun's energy.

2) Manufacturers ought to choose solar materials that can be recycled or disposed of safely.  Since most of the environmental impacts related to solar electricity stem from the production and disposal of energy gathering materials, manufacturers must acknowledge the environmental impacts of each stage of the material life cycle and plan appropriately.

3) The federal government ought to encourage the research and development of solar technologies through increased funding to solar projects conducted by the Department of Energy and independent research organizations.  The high price of solar technologies is one of the major barriers to advancing the solar electricity market. Increased government funding would serve to lower these prices and make development more feasible.  In addition to directly funding government research and development, grants to independent organizations would diversify the areas of research and development of solar technologies.

4) The federal government ought to encourage the implementation of solar technologies as stand alone and centralized power sources through increased subsidization. With current technology, subsidization is necessary to make solar generated electricity competitive with electricity generated by traditional means. The high initial cost of solar technologies creates a barrier to the implementation of such technologies.

5) The federal government ought to increase public education on the environmental and economic benefits of the use of solar technologies and green building practices.  Solving the problems posed by an energy crisis will ultimately come down to the habits and spending patterns of consumers.  An informed and educated public will realize the great potential of the sun as an affordable and secure source of energy, both for electricity production and for conservation through more efficient building practices.

Wind
1) The United States ought to move from the use of non-renewable energy sources to wind and other renewable sources of electricity generation.  Wind is just one of many cleaner, free, and inexhaustible sources for power. Thus, wind is a prime example of a renewable energy source that must be promoted to a greater extent than the usage of polluting and depleting non-renewable sources.

2) As individuals, we ought to purchase energy from our utility companies that is generated by renewable sources of electricity.  The utility companies are stressing the importance of renewable energy sources by providing these alternatives.  It is vital that we also recognize the significance of renewable sources and encourage furthering awareness and technology by supporting its use.

3) Scientists ought to study the aviation and migration patterns of birds to ensure the safety of the various species.  Negative environmental impacts should be researched in order to minimize the degradation of other species or natural planetary elements.

4) The efficiency of the turbines should be increased through study of wind patterns and investing in improved technologies.  The improvement of wind technologies will lead to increased use of the renewable source and decrease the national reliance on fossil fuels and other non-renewable energy sources.  Advancing the technology in order to increase the efficient employment of wind power will allow it to become less expensive and become more attractive for use.

5) Our nation ought to move towards the use of wind power for electricity generation in order to provide alternative energy sources for future generation.  As stated previously, wind, unlike many other fuel sources, is inexhaustible.  Moving toward the generation of electricity by wind power paves the way toward a sustainable future for generations to come.

Recommendations on Non-Renewable Sources

Non-renewable energy sources have been the cornerstone of energy production since the dawn of the industrial revolution.  In recent years, non-renewables have been the focus of many debates because of the finite supply that is nearing exhaustion and the adverse effects their use to generate electricity is causing to humans, other species, ecosystems, and the biosphere.  The projections of global warming and other escalating adversities in the future commands our attention and demands our action.  The combustion of fossil fuels is particularly problematic, and the growing stockpiles of highly radioactive wastes at nuclear power plants heightens our concern for future generations.
       A transition from reliance on traditional ways of generating electricity from non-renewable sources to reliance on renewables needs to begin now.  Our nation has a social responsibility to phase out the combustion of fossil fuels while simultaneously pursuing and applying non-combustive ways of using them as we move toward a renewable and efficient energy future.

Coal
1) While the combustion of coal remains the primary source for electricity production in the United States, industry leaders ought to develop and implement clean coal technologies to reduce overall emission of pollutants and increase total plant efficiencies.  Because coal is the most affordable, secure and available fuel source for generating electricity, this fossil fuel will remain the key source for generating electricity over the next few decades.  However, every effort must be made to advance a smooth transfer from the production of electricity by coal combustion to cleaner alternatives. In light of energy demands in the industrialized nations,  Earth cannot permanently sustain the production of electricity for the growing populations of people utilizing coal. Furthermore, there is no means currently to effectively sequester the CO₂ that is released through coal combustion and poses a serious threat to the future economic and environmental sustainability of all regions by contributing to global warming.  During this period of transition, clean-coal technologies that effectively reduce NO_x, SO₂, CO_2, and mercury emissions should be actively researched and implemented by industry leaders, ensuring that coal plants generate electricity at emission levels and efficiencies that will not jeopardize the health and well-being of future generations.

2) Legislators ought to establish a clear time line for tightening the United States emission standards for NO_x, SO₂, and CO₂, in order to facilitate prudent emissions planning by operators of of coal power plants.  Ecologists, theologians, economists, philosophers and countless other disciplinarians recognize that the harmful SO₂ and NO_x pollutants released by coal plants need to be strongly regulated by either policy or market forces if coal is to be a viable energy source in the future. Due to the contribution coal combustion makes to global warming, clear goals for CO₂ emissions need also be established in order to encourage the research and investment into more efficient coal processes.  Furthermore, it is estimated that forty new coal power plants will become operational in the United States by the year 2010.  The design to building process for a coal power plant takes a minimum of six years, and confusion surrounds the types of designs that are needed to meet new emission standards that may be set in the future.  Whether or not the Clear Skies Initiative is accepted as the timeline for stepping up enforceable emission standards, benchmarks need to be defined clearly and permanently.

3) Consumers ought to limit their dependency upon the combustion of coal for the production of electricity by reducing personal levels of consumption or choosing to purchase electricity produced from non-combustive sources.  Realizing that the process of combustion ultimately releases damaging pollutants such as NO_x, SO₂, Mercury, and CO_2, alternatives to burning coal should be chosen by consumers whenever possible.  For example, some utilities allow consumers to purchase only that electricity produced from renewable energy sources, and there are countless practical steps each person can take to use electricity more efficiently and conservatively.

4) Legislators ought to draft policy (i.e. subsidies, penalties, emissions trading) to firmly encourage power plants that existed before the 1978 Clean Air Act Amendments to improve their facilities to meet current emission levels.  The 1978 Clean Air Act Amendments first established emission standards that coal plants should meet, yet many coal plants that have been in existence longer than this legislation have successfully evaded these and more stringent regulations through a loophole known as New Source Review (NSR).  Coal plants built prior to 1978 must update their facilities to meet current emission standards only upon making major additions to infrastructure.  In turn, NSR encourages old coal plants to shovel greater quantities of coal rather than install emission controls and the EPA recently sacrificed its ability to even enforce the provisions through civil action by establishing the New Source Review Revisions.  Through either subsidy or law, these dangerous polluters need encouragement to implement scrubbers or shut down.

5) Coal producers ought to focus extraction efforts on coal deposits currently being excavated and, when additional coal sources are needed, only extract from new sites where environmentally sound methods can be used.  Environmentally sound mining techniques must be utilized, especially as the availability of abundant supplies of coal is diminished by further extraction and increased land development.  When faced with coal shortages, developers should not compromise the environmental sustainability of any ecosystem in order to continue the extraction of coal.

Natural Gas
1) Electrical utilities ought to use natural gas in place of "dirty" burning fossil fuels.  As coal and oil combustion is being phased out and non-combustive technologies are being pursued, natural gas should be used to generate electricity if the impacts of exploration and extraction of this non-renewable source can be mitigated. Non-combustive fuel-cell and other technologies for using natural gas should also be pursued.

2) The U.S. government ought to subsidize the development of technologies bearing greater efficiencies and non-conventional natural gas yields in all stages of the fuel cycle. To reduce the demand on limited and environmentally hazardous conventional natural gas reserves, alternate strategies should be investigated, including distributed generation and biochemical carbon scrubbers.

3) Local and national governments ought to consider environmental impact costs, such as water use and habitat infringement, when approving sites for natural gas exploration and development.  The various components that comprise the ecosystems within which natural gas exploration and development proceeds must be valued highly.

4) The U.S. government ought to retain more than adequate reserves of natural gas for future generations to serve their energy needs.  Our actions today are responsible for the negative effects upon future generations.

5) As a nation, we ought to investigate, promote and implement green policies that require utilities to establish bonds for restoring drilled land to its native state.  The restoration of areas into which drilling for natural gas occurs will assure that future people can enjoy the benefits of the land without being saddled with the detrimental effects of natural gas drilling and distribution.

Nuclear
1) The United States government should enact a policy that precludes the building of any more nuclear power plants until radioactive waste/spent fuel disposal is available for current plants and wastes slated for disposal are sufficiently minimized to preclude the need for a second high-level radioactive waste repository. This cautious approach to nuclear generation of electricity is needed to assure that the additional quantities of spent nuclear fuel do not contribute to the current stockpile at nuclear plants awaiting final disposition in Nevada. Minimizing the amount of radioactive waste that must be secured from the biosphere should also preclude the need to identify another repository site that might have ramifications for future generations for thousands of years.

2) The federal government ought to deal decisively with the spent fuel accumulating in nuclear power plans in a fair manner by working with the State and citizens of Nevada to design the specifics of the Yucca Mountain site as a permanent spent fuel repository.  Several sites and geological formations have been considered over the past four decades for the storage and disposal of spent nuclear fuel from electricity generation plants.  Meanwhile, the spent fuel removed from nuclear reactors remain on the plant sites, some overfilling their storage pools and others placed on concrete slabs outside awaiting disposal in a national repository.  A site in Nevada at Yucca Mountain has been designated by the President for a repository, but residents and officials of that state are resisting its location for fear of contamination now or into the distant future.  Rather than working against their fears, the federal government should work with their concerns and address them sufficiently in their interests and the interests of future generations so a repository can be established at Yucca Mountain or another site that may be more conducive to isolating the radioactivity from the biological environment for thousands of years.

3) The Department of Energy ought to contain all levels of radioactive wastes in a manner that minimizes negative environmental effects.  Because the spent fuel pools are over capacity, the excess waste canisters must be contained in a long-term storage or disposal facility.  All measures ought to be taken to ascertain the most suitable facility for permanent storage of spent fuel, as well as facilities for low-level and intermediate wastes.

4) The Nuclear Regulatory Commission ought to ensure workers' safety in the plants while they're generating electricity, while transporting and disposing of wastes, and when closing the plants when they are no longer serving their intended purpose. Workers' safety in all aspects of these processes need to be ensured through detailed training programs, periodic safety inspections, and good communication through a structured chain of command. Human error must be minimized to avoid catastrophic accidents.

5) The Nuclear Regulatory Commission ought to ensure the safety of those living near the plants or waste sites. The citizens must be informed of potential risks and the statistics on the probabilities of being affected by hazards. The concerns of the citizens should be addressed throughout the construction, operation, and decommissioning of both plant and radioactive waste storage and disposal sites.

6) The United States government ought to ensure that the "Not In My Backyard" theory does not force plants and wastes into poverty stricken or minority areas due to their lack of political influence.  The ethical requirements of environmental justice demand that the location of nuclear plants and waste disposal facilities should not be shifted to areas just because vulnerable, poor and politically under-represented people will not resist their location. Facilities should be located in areas of high demand regardless of social class.

7) Research ought to be pursued at the federal level to determine the feasibility of developing cost effective reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel from power plants that produces minimal contamination and safeguards against the diversion of by-products that can be used to produce nuclear weapons.  The United States should not continue to create radioactive spent fuel waste that will continue to pose threats for future generations. The possibilities for reprocessing the spent fuel to minimize the wastes should be considered.

8) The federal government should subsidize the research and development of fusion technologies that may be more efficiently generate electricity. More efficient methods than nuclear fission for generating electricity should be researched. Considered a more efficient alternative, nuclear fusion may allow for a higher standard of efficiency if sufficiently developed and employed.

9) The federal government should secure the plutonium used in breeder fission plants and reconsider their use to generate electricity after all safety concerns have been resolved.  The security at breeder fission plants must be increased to avoid any unlawful use of the plutonium for nuclear weapon production.  Government funding to increase the research and refinement of the breeder fission process may lead to increased use of this efficient method if safety questions can be addressed.

10) All nations ought to enforce and work through the international atomic standards for plant specifications and safe disposal of radioactive wastes.  The United States government should use its international influence to help enforce these standards in countries such as Russia and the Ukraine.  With these standards, reactors such as the RBMK reactor involved in the Chernobyl incident will be decommissioned, thus furthering the safety of all forms of biological life, including humans.  

Oil
1) Utilities should convert phased-out infrastructures to cleaner forms of production, such as natural gas or biomass burning plants, or these infrastructures should be safely dismantled.  Since our nation derives an ever-decreasing proportion of its electric energy from oil, infrastructures formally used for this source should be maintained and modified to employ cleaner and/or renewable fuel sources, such as biomass or natural gas.  Infrastructures that cannot be used feasibly should be safely dismantled in accordance with the current environmental standards.  Our recommendation is that the federal government offer subsidies to utilities to lessen the burden of conversion to a more economic and ecologically responsible energy production facility.

2) As a nation, the United States should continue to decrease its reliance on oil for electricity production, eliminating this method in a timely manner.  As known oil reserves continue to decline, a conscious effort should be undertaken by our nation to seek out alternative energy production means in order to decrease and eventually eliminate dependence on non-renewable energy sources.  The current population of our nation is responsible for ensuring that the basic needs of today are met, and that these basic needs are not superceded by the projected desires of the future, however, we must also insure that the basic needs of the future are not superceded by the excessive luxuries of today.  A responsible balance must be sought that does not inhibit a suitable standard of living to both the present and future generations.  Both the federal government and energy corporations should work toward the achievement of this balance.

3) Current regulations for minimizing environmental impacts of oil extraction should be more efficiently enforced, especially in remote but sensitive habitats such as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Despite stringent regulation, accidents almost inevitably occur.  The frequency and severity of accidents can be decreased with enforced compliance to federal standards that take into account many factors that contribute to the ecological sensitivity of the local environment. Research by respectable organizations such as the Natural Resource Defense Council on the lack of enforced compliance to current regulation, especially in remote regions, should be heeded.

4) International extraction regulations should reflect progressive and universal safety and environmental standards. While environmental standards in more developed nations have improved, a need for complete international compliance to an adequate environmental standard in the interests of present and future generations is needed.  Cooperation of all nations is essential for the development of an international environmental standard of extraction, refinement, and consumption.

5) Consumptive use of oil as an energy resource should responsibly ensure that the climate future generations inherit will not be made dangerously volatile.  The environmental consequences of oil refinement and consumption lead to the inevitable production of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. The United States must ensure that the present climatic conditions are not irreversibly modified to the extent that future generations will be unable to enjoy a reasonable standard of living.  It is also the responsibility of our government to encourage as well as enforce the proper behavior compatible with suitable future climatic conditions.

On behalf of the Students in the Seminar, Joseph Rowley, Discussion Leader and Editor
29 April 2003

Notes
1. Mission Statement, Marquette University, http://www.marquette.edu/about/mission.html, 9 April 2003.
2. Proposal to the College of Arts and Sciences, http://www.inee.mu.edu/Proposal.htm, 9 April 2003.